Hepatitis B
Main Article Content
Hepatitis B is a viral infection caused by the Hepatitis B virus (HBV), primarily affecting the liver and leading to both acute and chronic disease. With over 250 million individuals suffering from chronic Hepatitis B, it poses a significant global health challenge, being a leading cause of liver cirrhosis, liver failure, and hepatocellular carcinoma. This study aims to elucidate the transmission pathways, treatment options, and necessary public health strategies for Hepatitis B. We analyze the modes of transmission, which include contact with infectious body fluids—primarily through perinatal transmission, unprotected sexual contact, and sharing contaminated needles. Despite the availability of an effective vaccine since the 1980s, Hepatitis B remains endemic in many parts of Asia and Africa due to limited immunization coverage. The pathogenesis of HBV involves complex interactions between the virus and the host immune system, potentially leading to liver inflammation and fibrosis. Clinical presentations vary widely, ranging from asymptomatic infections to severe liver disease. Current treatment options for chronic Hepatitis B include antiviral medications such as tenofovir and entecavir, which suppress viral replication but do not cure the infection. Recent advancements in therapeutic strategies, including novel antivirals and immune modulators, show promise for more effective management and potential cures in the future. Comprehensive public health strategies—such as vaccination, screening, and education—are crucial for controlling the spread of HBV and reducing the global burden of Hepatitis B-related complications.
Keywords:
hepatitis B virus, chronic hepatitis B, liver cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, transmission, vaccination
Arora, A., Singh, S. P., Kumar, A., Saraswat, V. A., Aggarwal, R., Bangar, M., … Wadhawan, M. (2018). INASL Position Statements on Prevention, Diagnosis and Management of Hepatitis B Virus Infection in India: The Andaman Statements. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hepatology, 8(1), 58–80. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jceh.2017.12.001
Austin, H. (2022). An evaluation of hepatitis B virus in England and the host-virus interplay as a key determinant of disease outcomes. The University of Liverpool (United Kingdom).
Bainbridge, T. F., Ludeke, S. G., & Smillie, L. D. (2022). Evaluating the Big Five as an organizing framework for commonly used psychological trait scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 122(4), 749.
Bastug, A., & Bodur, H. (2019). Acute Hepatitis B. Viral Hepatitis: Acute Hepatitis, 25–44.
Bogler, Y., Wong, R. J., & Gish, R. G. (2018). Epidemiology and natural history of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatitis B Virus and Liver Disease, 63–89.
Cusi, K., Isaacs, S., Barb, D., Basu, R., Caprio, S., Garvey, W. T., … Younossi, Z. (2022). American Association of Clinical Endocrinology Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Primary Care and Endocrinology Clinical Settings. Endocrine Practice, 28(5), 528–562. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eprac.2022.03.010
Furino, A. (2019). Health policy and the Hispanic. Routledge.
García, M. P. S., Rojas, R. N. C., Pedraza, C., & Cano, J. F. (2019). Severe Mental Illness Program, impact and response of structured interentions in a group of patients in Bogota, Colombia. In American Psychiatric Association (APA) 172nd Annual Meeting.
Glebe, D., Goldmann, N., Lauber, C., & Seitz, S. (2021). HBV evolution and genetic variability: Impact on prevention, treatment and development of antivirals. Antiviral Research, 186, 104973. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104973
Golos, A. M., Guntuku, S.-C., & Buttenheim, A. M. (2024). “Do not inject our babies”: a social listening analysis of public opinion about authorizing pediatric COVID-19 vaccines. Health Affairs Scholar, 2(7).
Grados, L., Pérot, M., Barbezier, N., Delayre-Orthez, C., Bach, V., Fumery, M., … Gay-Quéheillard, J. (2022). How advanced are we on the consequences of oral exposure to food contaminants on the occurrence of chronic non communicable diseases? Chemosphere, 303, 135260. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135260
Guardiola Arévalo, A., Gómez Rodríguez, R., Romero Gutiérrez, M., Gómez Moreno, A. Z., García Vela, A., Sánchez Simón, R., … Andrés Esteban, E. M. (2017). Characteristics and course of chronic hepatitis B e antigen-negative infection. Gastroenterología y Hepatología (English Edition), 40(2), 59–69. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gastre.2016.11.009
Khan, M. F., Khan, M. I., & Kato, I. (2023). Structural and functional variation of human oral microbiome in health and disease. In Microbiome and the Eye (pp. 19–86). Elsevier. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98338-9.00002-5
Khuroo, M. S., & Khuroo, M. S. (2016). Hepatitis E: an emerging global disease–from discovery towards control and cure. Journal of Viral Hepatitis, 23(2), 68–79.
Kochoumian, E., Moore, J., Mina, B., & Cahill, K. (2020). Infections and Their Mimics in Returning Travelers in the Critical Care Unit. In Infectious Diseases and Antimicrobial Stewardship in Critical Care Medicine (pp. 93–108). CRC Press.
Lau, K. C. K. (2020). Persistent Hepatitis B Virus in Hepatic and Extrahepatic Reservoirs in Hepatitis B Virus Related Oncogenesis.
Leoni, S., Casabianca, A., Biagioni, B., & Serio, I. (2022). Viral hepatitis: Innovations and expectations. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 28(5), 517.
Locarnini, S., Hatzakis, A., Chen, D.-S., & Lok, A. (2015). Strategies to control hepatitis B: Public policy, epidemiology, vaccine and drugs. Journal of Hepatology, 62(1), S76–S86. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2015.01.018
Louten, J. (2016). Virus transmission and epidemiology. Essential Human Virology, 71.
Murray, K. (2020). Exploring life changes for patients diagnosed with’Alcoholic Liver Disease’-A qualitative study in Husserl’s and Merleau-Ponty’s thought.
Nkomo, P., Naicker, N., Mathee, A., Galpin, J., Richter, L. M., & Norris, S. A. (2018). The association between environmental lead exposure with aggressive behavior, and dimensionality of direct and indirect aggression during mid-adolescence: Birth to Twenty Plus cohort. Science of The Total Environment, 612, 472–479. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.138
Omonga, N. F. (2020). The synthesis, isolation and evaluation of novel anticancer and antibacterial therapeutics derived from natural products. University of Salford (United Kingdom).
Ou, Q., Mu, H., Zhou, C., Zheng, Z., & Geng, J. (2021). Liver diseases. Clinical Molecular Diagnostics, 463–492.
Pankhurst, C. L., & Coulter, W. A. (2017). Basic guide to infection prevention and control in dentistry. John Wiley & Sons.
Peleg, N., Issachar, A., Sneh Arbib, O., Cohen-Naftaly, M., Braun, M., Leshno, M., … Shlomai, A. (2019). Liver steatosis is a strong predictor of mortality and cancer in chronic hepatitis B regardless of viral load. JHEP Reports, 1(1), 9–16. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhepr.2019.02.002
Razonable, R. R. (2020). M. Veronica Dioverti1. Diagnostic Microbiology of the Immunocompromised Host, 97.
Rodríguez, M., Buti, M., Esteban, R., Lens, S., Prieto, M., Suárez, E., & García-Samaniego, J. (2020). Consensus document of the Spanish Association for Study of the Liver on the treatment of hepatitis B virus infection (2020). Gastroenterología y Hepatología (English Edition), 43(9), 559–587. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gastre.2020.03.008
Saeed, S. (2019). The Hepatitis C treatment revolution: Are key HIV-Hepatitis C Co-infected populations being left behind? McGill University (Canada).
Salman, K., Rashmi, Priti, S., Molly, M., Kumar, V. S., & Zeenat, S. (2015). Hepatitis B virus infection in pregnant women and transmission to newborns. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease, 5(6), 421–429. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S2222-1808(15)60809-X
Stockdale, A. J. (2020). Hepatitis B and C in Malawi: Epidemiology, Disease Burden and Opportunities for a Public Health Treatment Programme. The University of Liverpool (United Kingdom).
Townsend, S. A., & Newsome, P. N. (2016). Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in 2016. British Medical Bulletin, 119(1), 143.
Triveni, G. S., Aggarwal, R., & Dwivedi, P. (2020). Approach Antenatal Woman Attending Pregnant to. Clinical Methods in Obstetrics & Gynecology, 3.
Yi, P., Chen, R., Huang, Y., Zhou, R.-R., & Fan, X.-G. (2016). Management of mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B virus: Propositions and challenges. Journal of Clinical Virology, 77, 32–39. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2016.02.003
Yousaf, M. (2022). C-section birth data classification using ensemble modelling techniques and their performance analysis.
Zhang, L., Gui, X., Teter, C., Zhong, H., Pang, Z., Ding, L., … Zhang, L. (2014). Effects of hepatitis B immunization on prevention of mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis B virus and on the immune response of infants towards hepatitis B vaccine. Vaccine, 32(46), 6091–6097. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.08.078
Austin, H. (2022). An evaluation of hepatitis B virus in England and the host-virus interplay as a key determinant of disease outcomes. The University of Liverpool (United Kingdom).
Bainbridge, T. F., Ludeke, S. G., & Smillie, L. D. (2022). Evaluating the Big Five as an organizing framework for commonly used psychological trait scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 122(4), 749.
Bastug, A., & Bodur, H. (2019). Acute Hepatitis B. Viral Hepatitis: Acute Hepatitis, 25–44.
Bogler, Y., Wong, R. J., & Gish, R. G. (2018). Epidemiology and natural history of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatitis B Virus and Liver Disease, 63–89.
Cusi, K., Isaacs, S., Barb, D., Basu, R., Caprio, S., Garvey, W. T., … Younossi, Z. (2022). American Association of Clinical Endocrinology Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Primary Care and Endocrinology Clinical Settings. Endocrine Practice, 28(5), 528–562. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eprac.2022.03.010
Furino, A. (2019). Health policy and the Hispanic. Routledge.
García, M. P. S., Rojas, R. N. C., Pedraza, C., & Cano, J. F. (2019). Severe Mental Illness Program, impact and response of structured interentions in a group of patients in Bogota, Colombia. In American Psychiatric Association (APA) 172nd Annual Meeting.
Glebe, D., Goldmann, N., Lauber, C., & Seitz, S. (2021). HBV evolution and genetic variability: Impact on prevention, treatment and development of antivirals. Antiviral Research, 186, 104973. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104973
Golos, A. M., Guntuku, S.-C., & Buttenheim, A. M. (2024). “Do not inject our babies”: a social listening analysis of public opinion about authorizing pediatric COVID-19 vaccines. Health Affairs Scholar, 2(7).
Grados, L., Pérot, M., Barbezier, N., Delayre-Orthez, C., Bach, V., Fumery, M., … Gay-Quéheillard, J. (2022). How advanced are we on the consequences of oral exposure to food contaminants on the occurrence of chronic non communicable diseases? Chemosphere, 303, 135260. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135260
Guardiola Arévalo, A., Gómez Rodríguez, R., Romero Gutiérrez, M., Gómez Moreno, A. Z., García Vela, A., Sánchez Simón, R., … Andrés Esteban, E. M. (2017). Characteristics and course of chronic hepatitis B e antigen-negative infection. Gastroenterología y Hepatología (English Edition), 40(2), 59–69. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gastre.2016.11.009
Khan, M. F., Khan, M. I., & Kato, I. (2023). Structural and functional variation of human oral microbiome in health and disease. In Microbiome and the Eye (pp. 19–86). Elsevier. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98338-9.00002-5
Khuroo, M. S., & Khuroo, M. S. (2016). Hepatitis E: an emerging global disease–from discovery towards control and cure. Journal of Viral Hepatitis, 23(2), 68–79.
Kochoumian, E., Moore, J., Mina, B., & Cahill, K. (2020). Infections and Their Mimics in Returning Travelers in the Critical Care Unit. In Infectious Diseases and Antimicrobial Stewardship in Critical Care Medicine (pp. 93–108). CRC Press.
Lau, K. C. K. (2020). Persistent Hepatitis B Virus in Hepatic and Extrahepatic Reservoirs in Hepatitis B Virus Related Oncogenesis.
Leoni, S., Casabianca, A., Biagioni, B., & Serio, I. (2022). Viral hepatitis: Innovations and expectations. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 28(5), 517.
Locarnini, S., Hatzakis, A., Chen, D.-S., & Lok, A. (2015). Strategies to control hepatitis B: Public policy, epidemiology, vaccine and drugs. Journal of Hepatology, 62(1), S76–S86. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2015.01.018
Louten, J. (2016). Virus transmission and epidemiology. Essential Human Virology, 71.
Murray, K. (2020). Exploring life changes for patients diagnosed with’Alcoholic Liver Disease’-A qualitative study in Husserl’s and Merleau-Ponty’s thought.
Nkomo, P., Naicker, N., Mathee, A., Galpin, J., Richter, L. M., & Norris, S. A. (2018). The association between environmental lead exposure with aggressive behavior, and dimensionality of direct and indirect aggression during mid-adolescence: Birth to Twenty Plus cohort. Science of The Total Environment, 612, 472–479. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.138
Omonga, N. F. (2020). The synthesis, isolation and evaluation of novel anticancer and antibacterial therapeutics derived from natural products. University of Salford (United Kingdom).
Ou, Q., Mu, H., Zhou, C., Zheng, Z., & Geng, J. (2021). Liver diseases. Clinical Molecular Diagnostics, 463–492.
Pankhurst, C. L., & Coulter, W. A. (2017). Basic guide to infection prevention and control in dentistry. John Wiley & Sons.
Peleg, N., Issachar, A., Sneh Arbib, O., Cohen-Naftaly, M., Braun, M., Leshno, M., … Shlomai, A. (2019). Liver steatosis is a strong predictor of mortality and cancer in chronic hepatitis B regardless of viral load. JHEP Reports, 1(1), 9–16. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhepr.2019.02.002
Razonable, R. R. (2020). M. Veronica Dioverti1. Diagnostic Microbiology of the Immunocompromised Host, 97.
Rodríguez, M., Buti, M., Esteban, R., Lens, S., Prieto, M., Suárez, E., & García-Samaniego, J. (2020). Consensus document of the Spanish Association for Study of the Liver on the treatment of hepatitis B virus infection (2020). Gastroenterología y Hepatología (English Edition), 43(9), 559–587. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gastre.2020.03.008
Saeed, S. (2019). The Hepatitis C treatment revolution: Are key HIV-Hepatitis C Co-infected populations being left behind? McGill University (Canada).
Salman, K., Rashmi, Priti, S., Molly, M., Kumar, V. S., & Zeenat, S. (2015). Hepatitis B virus infection in pregnant women and transmission to newborns. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease, 5(6), 421–429. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S2222-1808(15)60809-X
Stockdale, A. J. (2020). Hepatitis B and C in Malawi: Epidemiology, Disease Burden and Opportunities for a Public Health Treatment Programme. The University of Liverpool (United Kingdom).
Townsend, S. A., & Newsome, P. N. (2016). Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in 2016. British Medical Bulletin, 119(1), 143.
Triveni, G. S., Aggarwal, R., & Dwivedi, P. (2020). Approach Antenatal Woman Attending Pregnant to. Clinical Methods in Obstetrics & Gynecology, 3.
Yi, P., Chen, R., Huang, Y., Zhou, R.-R., & Fan, X.-G. (2016). Management of mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B virus: Propositions and challenges. Journal of Clinical Virology, 77, 32–39. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2016.02.003
Yousaf, M. (2022). C-section birth data classification using ensemble modelling techniques and their performance analysis.
Zhang, L., Gui, X., Teter, C., Zhong, H., Pang, Z., Ding, L., … Zhang, L. (2014). Effects of hepatitis B immunization on prevention of mother-to-infant transmission of hepatitis B virus and on the immune response of infants towards hepatitis B vaccine. Vaccine, 32(46), 6091–6097. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.08.078
